北京外国语大学812外国语言学及应用语言学考研真题及辅导用书

考研真题

1. 北京外国语大学中国外语教育研究中心外国语言学及应用语言学历年考研真题

2. 全国名校英语语言学考研真题

考研指导书

1. 胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题

2. 胡壮麟《语言学教程》（第5版）配套题库【考研真题精选＋章节题库】

3. George Yule《语言研究》（第4版）配套题库【课后练习＋章节题库（含名校考研真题）＋模拟试题】

4. H.D.Brown《语言学习与语言教学的原则》（第3版）笔记和课后习题

北京外国语大学中国外语教育研究中心外国语言学及应用语言学历年考研真题AI讲解

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2011年北京外国语大学中国外语教育研究中心外国语言学及应用语言学真题及详解

I.
Briefly explain the following terms.
(20 points)

1 perlocutionary
act

【答案】According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts
simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act illocutionary act perlocutionary
act. A perlocutionary act is the effect of the utterance. Thus, by saying
“Morning!” the speaker has made it clear that he wants to keep friendly
relations with the hearer.

2 minimal
pair

【答案】Minimal pairs are the two words which are identical in every way
except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string. For
example, the English words bear and pear constitute a minimal
pair as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /b/ and /p/.

3 distinctive
feature

【答案】The distinctive feature refers to a property which distinguishes one
phoneme from another. For example, “voicing” is a distinctive feature, since it
plays an important role in distinguishing obstruents in English.

4 linguistic variable

【答案】Linguistic variable are those where the meaning remain constant but form
varies like cat and pussy have the same social meaning
but different form. So far pronunciation is concerned house [h] and with [h] has
same social meaning with different pronunciation. Here variables are just the tools
to analyze the language to set social dimensional society.

5 lingua franca

【答案】It is a language that is used for communication between different
groups of people, each speaking a different language. The lingua franca could
be an internationally used language of communication (e. g. English), it could
be the native language of one of the groups, or it could be a language which is
not spoken natively by any of the groups but has a simplified sentence
structure and vocabulary and is often a mixture of two or more languages.

II.
Answer the following questions. (30 points)

1 Why do we say
linguistics is a science? (10
points)

【答案】

Linguistics is
generally defined as the scientific study of language. It tries to answer the
basic questions “What is language?” and “How does language work?” Linguistics studies
not any particular language, e.g. English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but it studies
languages in general.

It is a
scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic
data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In
order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the
linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which arc found
to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates
some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses thus formed
have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.
In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical
complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim
validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass
of things.

（此题考查语言学作为一门学科其科学性，此题开放性试题，从其研究内容及方法角度作答即可。）

2 Briefly explain how language is (a) systematic
(b) symbolic, and (c) social. (10 points)

【答案】

First, language
is systematic: it consists of recurrent elements which occur in regular
patterns of relationships. All languages have an infinite number of possible
sentences, and the vast majority of all sentences which are used have not been
memorized. They are created according to rules or principles which speakers are
usually unconscious of using or even of knowing if they acquired the language
as a young child.

Second, language
is symbolic: sequences of sounds or letters do not inherently possess meaning.
The meanings of symbols in a language come through the tacit agreement of a
group of speakers.

Third, language
is social: each language reflects the social requirements of the society that
use it, and there is no standard for judging: whether one language is more
effective for communication than another, other than to estimate the success
its users may have in achieving the social tasks that are demanded of them.

（考查语言的系统性，象征性及社会性。）

3 Linguists have taken an internal
and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. What
is the difference between the two? (10 points)

【答案】

The difference
between internal and or external focus to the study of language acquisition.

1) The internal focus seeks to account for speakers’
internalized, underlying knowledge of language. The external focus
emphasizes language use, including the functions of language which are realized
in learners’ production at different stages of development.

2) According to the
above difference, the linguist Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are
biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the
child just as other biological functions such as walking. Originally Chomsky
referred to this innate ability as Language Acquisition Device, also known as
LAD. Later Chomsky prefers this innate endowment as Universal Grammar (UG) and
holds that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn
is the ways in which their own language makes use of these principles and the
variations on those principles which may exist in the particular language they
are learning.

The interactionist
view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between
the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child
develops. Integrated with the innatist view, the interactionist further claims
that the modified language which is suitable for the child’s capability is
crucial in his language acquisition.

III. Read
the following paragraphs and then answer four questions. (50 points)

The idea behind the
experiential vision of learning is that the use of the target language for
communicative purposes is not
only the goal of learning, but also a means of learning in its own right. This
may clearly involve students using language which they may not have fully
mastered, and contrasts with other more ‘traditional’ approaches
which emphasize part practice (i.e., isolating parts of the whole for explicit study
and learning) leading up in a more or less controlled manner to integrated
language use for communicative purposes. An experiential approach to learning may
therefore involve a degree of what Johnson (1982) refers to as an ‘in at the
deep end strategy’. Simply throwing learners into wholly uncontrolled and
undirected language use is, of course, as dubious a strategy with respect to
language learning as doing the same with someone who is learning to swim. For
this reason, considerable effort has been devoted by methodologists, material
writers, and teachers in recent decades to the way in which two sets of factors
can be combined. One is the basic insight that language use can serve a
significant role in promoting learning, and the other is the
acknowledgement that use of the language needs to be structured in a coherent
and pedagogically manageable way. The experiential vision of learning has evolved
in a variety of ways since the 1960s and is now encountered in a number of
differing forms. Nevertheless, most
experiential approaches to learning rest on five main principles which were
developed in the earlier days of the communicative movement, even
if certain receive more attention in one variant than in another. These
principles are the following: message focus, holistic
practice, the use of authentic materials, the use of
communication strategies, and the use of collaborative modes of learning. (Tudor
2001: 79)

An analytical view of learning posits that according
explicit attention to the regularities of language and language use can play a
positive role in learning. Each language manifests a number of structural
regularities in areas such as grammar, lexis and phonology, and also with
respect to the ways in which these elements are combined to communicate
messages. The question, therefore, is not
whether languages have structural regularities or not, but whether
and in which way explicit attention to such regularities can facilitate the
learning of the language. An analytical approach
to learning rests on a more or less marked degree of part practice, i.e., isolating
parts of the whole for explicit study and learning, even if its
ultimate goal remains the development of learners’ ability to put these parts
together for integrated, holistic use. At least, two main
considerations lend support to an analytical approach to learning. First, in terms of learning in general, the
isolation and practice of sub-parts of a target skill is a fairly common
phenomenon……. Second, explicit
identification of regularities in a language has advantages which Johnson (1996：83)
refers to as ‘generativity’ and ‘economy’. Mastering a
regularity in a language gives learners access to the generative potential of
this regularity in new circumstances…… Explicit presentation or
discovery of the structural regularities of a language can therefore represent
a short-cut to mastery of this language and support learners’ ability to
manipulate these regularities for communicative purposes. (Tudor
2001：86-7)

1 What are the differences between experiential and analytical
modes of language learning? (10 points)

2 What serves as the theoretical foundation for
the experiential mode of language learning and what
are its advantages and disadvantages? (15 points)

3 What serves as the theoretical foundation for
the analytical mode of language learning and what are its advantages and
disadvantages? (15 points)

4 How would you balance the two
modes of learning in your teaching or learning of a foreign language? (10
points)

【答案】

1 The experiential mode is totally different from the analytical
mode of learning. An experiential approach to learning may involve a
degree of what Johnson (1982) refers to as an ‘in at the deep end strategy’. Simply throwing learners into wholly
uncontrolled and undirected language use is, of course, as
dubious a strategy with respect to language learning as doing the same with
someone who is learning to swim. For this reason, considerable
effort has been devoted by methodologists, material writers, and
teachers.

An analytical approach to learning rests on a more or less
marked degree of part practice, i.e., isolating parts of the whole for explicit study
and learning, even if its ultimate goal remains the
development of learners’ ability to put these parts together for integrated, holistic
use.

2 The experiential mode
provides a holistic model of the learning process and a multilinear model of
adult development, both of which are consistent with what we know about how
people learn, grow, and develop. The theory is to emphasize the central role
that experience plays in the learning process, an emphasis that distinguishes
experiential mode of language learning from other learning theories. The term
“experiential” is used therefore to differentiate experiential mode of language
learning both from cognitive learning theories, which tend to emphasize
cognition over affect, and behavioral learning theories that deny any role for
subjective experience in the learning process.

However, simply throwing learners into wholly uncontrolled and
undirected language use is, of course, as dubious a strategy with respect to
language learning as doing the same with someone who is learning to swim.
Therefore, this mode of language learning requires the methodologists,
material writers, and teachers to combine two sets of factors. One is the basic
insight that language use can serve a significant role in promoting learning, and
the other is the acknowledgement that use of the language needs to be
structured in a coherent and pedagogically manageable way.

3 An analytical
approach to learning emphasizes the explicit study of the language learning a linguistic
and communicative system. It is characteristic of the grammar-translation method,
is found in the cognitive code approach, in various CALL exercises, and in form-focus
learning activities. It is also present in certain types of learner training or
awareness raising activities involving the explicit analysis by learners of aspects
of the languages teaching and learning or of their own language production.

Each language manifests a number of structural regularities
in areas such as grammar, lexis and phonology, and also with respect to the
ways in which these elements are combined to communicate messages. The
question, therefore, is not whether languages have structural
regularities or not, but whether and in which way explicit attention
to such regularities can facilitate the learning of the language.

The main
criticism of analytical learning is that declarative knowledge does not necessarily feed through to the ability to use a language for communicative purposes. In other words, someone may have a good knowledge of structural regularities of a language without being able to make use of the language with the spontaneity and fluency which are required in normal communicative situations.

4 I would
combine the two approaches together to learn a foreign language. First,
following the analytical mode of language learning, the basic grammatical knowledge
could be captured. Second, with the basic knowledge of structural regularities of a language, the experiential mode of language learning
should be followed.

For example, when
I learn how to greet in English, the first thing I should know about is how to pronounce
“Hello!” or “How are you?” and the meaning of the expression. Then the next, I should
learn in the relevant situations. Native speakers may respond to the phatic greeting in a variety of ways depending
on the context and on how well they know about the interlocutor; e.g. “Fine.
And you?”, “Can’t complain.”, “You know me!” are just a few instances from the wide
repertoire of native speakers of English.

Through that process, the knowledge of the language which is
gained by the analytical approach could improve the ability to use the language
in reality, which can be developed by the experiential approach.

(此题为开放性题目，从如何运用两种语言学习方法来学外语的角度谈即可。)

IV. Read the following
passage and answer three questions.
(50 points)

Teachers employ different types of conceptual
organization and meaning. One
level of meaning relates to subject matter knowledge and how curricular and
content aspects of teaching are conceptualized (Shulman l987). Woods
(1996) describes teachers’ conceptions of lessons as made up of conceptual
units at different levels of abstraction. He distinguishes between the following: overall
conceptual goals-the overall
purposes teachers identify for a
course; global conceptual units-the individual subcomponents of the curriculum (e.g., the
grammar, reading,  writing, and listening
components of an integrated skills course); intermediate
conceptual units- activities, or
clusters of activities framed in terms of accomplishing one of the higher-level
conceptual goals; and local conceptual units-the specific things teachers do to achieve
particular instructional effects. Other constructs that have been proposed to
account for how teachers realize the curricular agendas they set for lessons
and the kinds of cognitive processes they employ include lesson formats (Wong-Fillmore
1985), tasks (Doyle 1983), scripts, and
routines (Shavelson and Stem 1981).
Constructs such as these seek to
describe how teachers approach the subject matter of
teaching and how they transform content into learning. Much of this
research draws on a framework of cognitive psychology and has provided evidence
of the kinds of pedagogical content knowledge, reasoning, and
problem solving teachers make use of as they teach (Cliff 1991).

In addition to the curricular goals and content, teachers
have other more personal views of teaching (Johnston 1990). Zeichner, Tabachnick, and
Densmore (1987) try to capture this with the notion of perspective, which
they define as the ways in which teachers understand, interpret, and
define their environment and use such interpretation to guide their actions. They followed teachers through their year-long
professional training and their first year in the classroom, and
found that their personal, perspectives served as powerful influences on
how they taught. In describing the basis for teachers’ conceptualizations
of good practice, Clandinin (1985, 1986)
introduced the concept of image, which she describes as “a central construct for
understanding teachers’ knowledge” (1985：362). An
image is a metaphor, such as “the classroom as home,” “setting up
a relationship with children,” or “meeting the needs of students,” that
teachers may have in mind when they teach. Johnston
(1992) suggests that images such as these are not always conscious, that
they reflect how teachers view themselves in their teaching contexts, and
that they form the subconscious assumptions on which theft teaching practices
are based. In a study of what second language teachers perceive to be
good classes, Senior (1995) found that experienced ESL
teachers in an Australian educational setting attempting to implement a
communicative methodology appeared to have arrived at the tacit assumption that, to
promote successful language learning,
it is necessary to develop a bonded
class-that is, one in which there is a positive, mutually
supportive group atmosphere. The teachers appeared to employ a range of both
conscious and unconscious strategies in order to develop a spirit of cohesion
within theft class groups.

Halkes and Deijkers (1984) refer to teachers’ teaching
criteria, which are defined as “personal subjective values a person
tries to pursue or keep constant while teaching.” Teachers hold personal views of themselves, their
learners, their goals, and their role in the classroom and they
presumably try to reflect these in theft practice. Marland
(1987) examined the principles used to guide and interpret teaching, and
identified five such working principles that were derived from stimulated
recall interviews with teachers. For example, the “principle
of progressive checking” involved checking students’ progress
periodically, identifying problems,
and providing individual
encouragement for low-ability students. Conners (1978) studied
elementary teachers and found that all of those in her study used three
overarching principles of practice to guide and explain theft interactive
teaching behavior: “suppressing emotions,” “teacher
authenticity,” and “self-monitoring.” The “principle
of teacher authenticity” involved the teacher presenting herself in such a
way that good personal relationships with students and a socially supportive
classroom atmosphere would be achieved. This principle required
the teacher to attempt to be open, sincere, and honest, as
well as fallible.

1 What
could be the title of this passage? (10 points)

2 What are the functions of those conceptual units
as described by Woods (1996) in language teaching? (20 points)

3 Discuss the relationship between “perspective” and
“image” and between “image” and “teaching criteria” as mentioned in this
passage? (20 points)

【答案】

1 The title of this passage could be “Two Dimensions of Teacher
Knowledge”.

This passage mainly introduces two different kinds of knowledge
influence teachers’ understanding and practice of teaching. One is subject matter
and curricular issues, and how the content of a lesson can be presented in an effective
and coherent way. This is the aspect of teaching that has to do with curricular
goals, lesson plans, instructional activities, materials, tasks, and teaching techniques.
The other is the knowledge about teachers’ implicit theories of teaching – that
is, their personal and subjective philosophy and their understanding of what constitutes
good teaching. It is this dimension that forms the focus of this passage.

(根据文章内容自拟题目，并分析拟此题目的根据。)

2 Woods (1996) describes teachers’ conceptions of lessons
as made up of conceptual units at different levels of abstraction. He
distinguishes between the following:
overall conceptual goals-the overall purposes teachers identify for a
course; global conceptual units-the individual subcomponents of the curriculum (e.g., the
grammar, reading, writing, and listening components
of an integrated skills course); intermediate conceptual units- activities, or clusters
of activities framed in terms of accomplishing one of the higher-level
conceptual goals; and local conceptual units-the specific things teachers do to achieve
particular instructional effects.

The function of these conceptual units is to clear the theme of the class, to design the content and each sector of the lesson, to adopt the form of teaching such as presentation, activity and group discussion, to plan the details of the process of a lesson. By those concepts, the teaching of in a class could be better evaluated and those concepts give teachers a clear guideline of the preparation of a class.

3 Perspective,
which they define as the ways in
which teachers understand, interpret, and define
their environment and use such interpretation to guide their actions.

Image is describes as “a central construct for
understanding teachers’ knowledge.” An image is a metaphor, such as “the
classroom as home,” “setting up a relationship with children,”
or “meeting the needs of students,” that teachers may have in mind when they teach.

Teachers’ teaching criteria, which are
defined as “personal subjective values a person tries to pursue or keep
constant while teaching.” Teachers hold personal views of themselves, their
learners, their goals, and their role in the classroom and they
presumably try to reflect these in theft practice.

From the above,
we can see
clearly the “perspective” is knowledge about teachers’ implicit theories of teaching
– that is, their personal and subjective philosophy and their understanding of what
constitutes good teaching. It is teacher-oriented. While the image is the context
that the teacher shows for the students, the perspective and the image may be the
same or not.

Image is what the
teachers think and they feel necessary to do while teaching. Teachers’ teaching criteria is the evaluation made by teachers
themselves. And the important part is the image may also be the part of their teaching
criteria.

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